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Design Loads
1. DEAD LOADS
2. LIVE LOADS
3. LATERAL LOADS
4. LOAD COMBINATIONS
NOTE: The following data are taken
or derived from different sources which include various technical publications, manufacturers' data sheets, suppliers' brochures
and actual weighing or measurement of building material. These data are compiled to serve as reference in structural
design unless specific data are given by clients or consultants. Other engineers who want to adopt these design criteria may
do so at their own risk as there are data derived based on assumptions that are not shown in this document.
1.
DEAD LOADS
1.1 Roofing
ROOF OR WALL COVERINGS INCLUDING LAPS AND FASTENINGS
Metal
deck, gage 20, 120 Pa
Metal deck, gage 18, 140 Pa
US std. ga. 26 (.50mmt) corr. G.I., 77 Pa
US std. ga. 24 (.65mmt)
corr. G.I., 96 Pa
US std. ga. 22 (.80mmt) corr. G.I., 116 Pa
Saudi Cover TP 30-SS (.50 to .90mmt), 44 to 84 Pa
Saudi
Cover TRP40R-200 (.50 to .90mmt), 46 to 87 Pa
Saudi Cover TRP65-150 (.50 to .90mmt), 54 to 101 Pa
Hesco VP-25 (.50mmt),
48 Pa
Hesco VP-25 (.90mmt), 86 Pa
Hesco VP-40 (.90mmt), 82 Pa
Hesco VP-65 (1.20mmt), 133 Pa
Hesco VF-55 (.5mm
skin sht.), 120 Pa
Hesco VF-75 (.75mm skin sht.), 177 Pa
Hesco VF-85 (.75mm skin sht.), 177 Pa
US std. ga. 26 plain
G.I. including battens and sheathing boards, 317 Pa
US std. ga. 24 plain G.I. including battens and sheathing boards, 327
Pa
US std. ga. 22 plain G.I. including battens and sheathing boards, 336 Pa
Corr. fiberglass sht. 3mmt, 69 Pa
Corr.
aluminum sht., 48 Pa
Copper sht., 96 Pa
Tin sht., 48 Pa
SHINGLES
Wood shingles, 140 Pa
Asphalt shingles,
100 Pa
Asbestos-cement, 190 Pa
TILES
Cement, 770 Pa
Clay tile (for mortar add 480 Pa)
Book tile, 51 mm,
570 Pa
Book tile, 76 mm, 960 Pa
Ludowici, 480 Pa
Roman, 570 Pa
Spanish, 910 Pa
SHEATHING
Gypsum, 3mm
thk, 100 Pa
Plywood or wood, per mm thickness, 6 Pa
INSULATION, ROOF BOARDS, PER MM THICKNESS
Cellular glass,
1.3 Pa
Fibrous glass, 2.1 Pa
Fiberboard, 2.8 Pa
Perlite, 1.5 Pa
Polystyrene foam, 0.4 Pa
Urethane foam with
skin, 0.9 Pa
Rigid foam plastic, 75 Pa
AFICO HD-16 blanket insulation, 50mm thk, 8 Pa
AFICO HD-24 blanket insulation,
50mmt thk, 12 Pa
Fiberglass batts, 25 Pa
Rigid insulation, 13mm, 40 Pa
SKYLIGHT
Skylight, metal frame, 10mm
wire glass, 380 Pa
Aluminum frame, plastic glass, 290 Pa
COMPOSITION ROOFING
Three-ply ready roofing, 50 Pa
Four-ply
felt and gravel, 260 Pa
Five-ply felt and gravel, 290 Pa
Copper or tin, 50 Pa
Decking, 51mm wood (Douglas fir), 240
Pa
Decking, 76mm wood (Douglas fir), 380 Pa
Fiberboard, 13mm, 40 Pa
Slate, 5mmt, 340 Pa
Slate, 6mmt, 480 Pa
WATERPROOFING
MEMBRANES:
Bituminous, gravel-covered, 260 Pa
Bituminous, smooth surface, 70 Pa
Liquid applied, 50 Pa
Single-ply,
sheet, 30 Pa
Torchply 1200, 30 Pa
1.2 Roof Structures
ROOF TRUSS AND PURLINS IF
SIZE NOT SPECIFIED, 144 Pa
PURLINS
200Z15 at 1.5m o.c., 28 Pa
200Z18 at 1.5m o.c., 33 Pa
200Z22 at 1.5m o.c.,
40 Pa
200Z26 at 1.5m o.c., 48 Pa
200Z15 at 2.0m o.c., 20 Pa
200Z18 at 2.0m o.c., 25 Pa
200Z22 at 2.0m o.c., 30
Pa
200Z26 at 2.0m o.c., 36 Pa
IPE80 at 1.36m o.c., span=5m, welded to rafter, 52 Pa
C100x50x15x2 at 1.00m o.c., span=5.5m,
sag rod at midspan, Pa
C100x50x20x2 at 1.00m o.c., span=5m, sag rod at midspan, 35 Pa
C150x60x20x2 at 1.00m o.c., span=5m,
no sag rod), 46 Pa
C150x50x20x2.3 at 1.40m o.c., span=5m, sag rod at midspan, 35 Pa
C200x75x25x4.5 at 1.25m o.c., 106
Pa
C200x75x25x3.2 at 1.27m o.c., 74 Pa
C200x75x30x3 at 1.25m o.c., 70 Pa
PLANK AND BEAM, 240 Pa
HOLLOW-CORE
SLABS
150mmt, 2440 Pa
200mmt, 2800 Pa
250mmt, 3300 Pa
300mmt, 3550 Pa
WOODEN CANOPY INCLUDING FRAMES AND
TILES, 3590 Pa
1.3 Ceilings
Acoustical fiber board, 50 Pa
Gypsum board (per mm thickness),
8 Pa
Mechanical duct allowance, 190 Pa
Plaster on tile or concrete, 240 Pa
Plaster on wood lath, 380 Pa
Suspended
steel channel system, 100 Pa
Suspended metal lath and gypsum plaster, 480 Pa
Suspended metal lath and cement plaster,
720 Pa
Wood furring suspension system, 120 Pa
Acoustic tile, including joists and furrings, 240 Pa
Acoustical board,
25mmt, including joists and furrings, 312 Pa
Asbestos cement sht., 5mmt, including joists and furrings, 336 Pa
Asbestos
cement sht., 6mmt, including joists and furrings, 384 Pa
Gypsum board, 12mmt, including joists and furrings, 336 Pa
Plywood,
6mmt, including joists and furrings, 240 Pa
Suspended lighting, 50 Pa
Suspended air conditioning ducting, 100 Pa
SUSPENDED
LIGHTING AND AIR DISTRIBUTION SYSTEM, 150 Pa
SPRINKLER SYSTEM, 150 Pa
Wood board, 22mmt, including joists and furrings,
384 Pa
1.4 Walls and Partitions
HOLLOW CONCRETE MASONRY UNIT WYTHES:
Density of
masonry unit is assumed at 21.21 KN/m3. Weight shown below include mortar and plaster on both faces. For other densities and
thicknesses, check with ANSI/ASCE 7-95.
No grout: 102 thick, 1870 Pa
152 thick, 1920 Pa
203 thick, 2350 Pa
Grout
at 1219mm: 152 thick, 2200 Pa
203 thick, 2730 Pa
Grout at 1016mm:
152 thick, 2250 Pa
203 thick, 2780 Pa
Grout
at 813mm:
152 thick, 2300 Pa
203 thick, 2870 Pa
Grout at 610mm:
152 thick, 2440 Pa
203 thick, 3070 Pa
Grout
at 406mm:
152 thick, 2680 Pa
203 thick, 3400 Pa
Full grout:
152 thick, 3450 Pa
203 thick, 4450 Pa
CLAY
BRICK WYTHES:
102 thick, 1870 Pa
203 thick, 3780 Pa
305 thick, 5510 Pa
406 thick, 7420 Pa
CAVITY WALL,
350mmt (100+50+50+150), 4420 Pa
HORDI BLOCKS (390/350x190x240), 2516 Pa
HORDI BLOCKS (390/350x190x190), 2118 Pa
6mmt
plywood double wall on 50x100 studs, 336 Pa
12mmt gypsum board on 50x100 studs, 580 Pa
22mmt wood panel double wall
on 50x100 studs, 4420 Pa
100mmt glass blocks, 864 Pa
100mmt clay tile and plaster, 960 Pa
300mt stone wall, 6720
Pa
Gypsum lath and plaster on 50x100 studs, 960 Pa
Metal stud and plaster, 960 Pa
PARTITIONS SUBJECT
TO CHANGE IN LOCATION AS PER UBC1997 SECTION 1606.2, PER FLOOR AREA, 960 Pa
Exception: Access floor systems shall be designed
to support, in addition to all other loads, a uniformly distributed dead load not less than 10 psf (480 Pa) of floor area.
FRAME
PARTITIONS
Movable steel partitions, 190 Pa
Wood or steel studs, 13mmt gypsum board each side, 380 Pa
Wood studs,
51x102, unplastered, 190 Pa
Wood studs, 51x102, plastered one side, 570 Pa
Wood studs, 51x102, plastered two sides,
960 Pa
FRAME WALLS
Exterior stud walls:
51x102 @ 406, 16mmt gypsum, insulated, 10mmt siding, 530 Pa
51x152
@ 406, 16mmt gypsum, insulated, 10mmt siding, 570 Pa
Exterior stud walls with brick veneer, 2300 Pa
Windows, glass,
frame and sash, 380 Pa
1.5 Floor Finishes
Asphalt block, 51mmt on 13mmt mortar base, 1440
Pa
Cement finish, 25mmt on stone-concrete fill, 1530 Pa
Cement or quarry tile, 19mmt on 13mmt mortar bed, 770 Pa
Cement
or quarry tile, 19mmt on 25mmt mortar bed, 1100 Pa
Concrete fill finish, per mm thickness, 23 Pa
Hardwood flooring,
22mmt, 190 Pa
Linoleum or asphalt tile, 6mmt, 50 Pa
Marble and mortar on stone-concrete fill, 1580 Pa
Slate, per
mm thickness, 28 Pa
Solid flat tile on 25mmt mortar base, 1100 Pa
Subflooring, 19mmt, 140 Pa
Terrazzo, 38mmt, directly
on slab, 910 Pa
Terrazzo, 25mmt on stone-concrete fill, 1530 Pa
Terrazzo, 25mmt on 51mmt stone-concrete, 1530 Pa
Wood
block, 76mmt on mastic, no fill, 480 Pa
Wood block, 76mmt on 13mmt mortar base, 770 Pa
Access floor panel for switchgear
rooms:
Type 6 (fiber reinforced mineral material) 34mmt, 215 Pa
Type 5 (wood material) 38.5mmt, 125 Pa
Asphalt
tile on cement mortar base, 576 Pa
Asphalt mastic flooring, 38mmt, 864 Pa
Carpet and pad, average, 150 Pa
Cement
tile and mortar, 40mmt (912 to 960), 936 Pa
Ceramic tiles, 19mmt, 480 Pa
Ceramic tiles, thin set, 240 Pa
Granolithic
or terrazzo on mortar base (1440 to 1680), 1560 Pa
Hardwood, 12mmt, 120 Pa
Parquet floor on cement mortar base, 624
Pa
Vitrified tile and mortar, 30mmt, 720 Pa
Vinyl tiles, 3mmt, 70 Pa
Wood floor, 22mmt on sleepers with conc. filler,
1440 Pa
1.6 Floor Tiles
Cinder concrete, per mm, 17 Pa
Lightweight concrete, per
mm, 15 Pa
Sand, per mm, 15 Pa
Stone concrete, per mm, 23 Pa
1.7 Floor Structures
Wood
joists incl. bridgings, 240 Pa
Ribbed slab, 300mmt with 240mmt hordi blocks, 5300 Pa
Access flooring for switchgear
stations (MERO Brand) 1m construction height:
Type 2-1200 (20 KPa design load) excluding floor covering, 415 Pa
Type
2-600 (38 KPa design load) excluding floor covering, 455 Pa
Type 2M-1200 (20 KPa design load) excluding floor covering,
600 Pa
Type 2M-600 (33.5 KPa design load) excluding floor covering, 640 Pa
HOLLOW-CORE SLABS
150mmt, 2440 Pa
200mmt,
2800 Pa
250mmt, 3300 Pa
300mmt, 3550 Pa
1.8 Density of Miscellaneous Materials
Aluminum,
26.7 KN/m3
Bituminous products:
Asphaltum, 12.7 KN/m3
Graphite, 21.2 KN/m3
Parafin, 8.8 KN/m3
Petroleum,
crude, 8.6 KN/m3
Petroleum, refined, 7.9 KN/m3
Petroleum, benzine, 7.2 KN/m3
Petroleum, gasoline, 6.7 KN/m3
Pitch,
.8 KN/m3
Tar, 11.8 KN/m3
Brass, 82.6 KN/m3
Brick, common (see masonry, brick), 17.60 KN/m3
Bronze, 86.7 KN/m3
Canned
goods, cases, 9.11 KN/m3
Cast-stone masonry (cement, stone, sand), 22.6 KN/m3
Cement, Portland, loose, 14.1 KN/m3
Ceramic
tile, 23.6 KN/m3
Charcoal, 1.9 KN/m3
Cinder fill, 9.0 KN/m3
Cinders, dry, in bulk, 7.1 KN/m3
Clay, dry (see earth),
22.00 KN/m3
Clay, wet (see earth), 30.64 KN/m3
Coal:
Anthracite, piled, 8.2 KN/m3
Bituminous,
piled, 7.4 KN/m3
Lignite, piled, 7.4 KN/m3
Peat, dry, piled, 3.6 KN/m3
Concrete, plain:
Cinder,
17.0 KN/m3
Expanded-slag aggregate, 15.7 KN/m3
Haydite (burned-clay aggregate), 14.1 KN/m3
Slag, 20.7 KN/m3
Stone
(including gravel), 22.6 KN/m3
Vermiculite and perlite aggregate, non load-bearing, 3.9 to 7.9 KN/m3
Other light aggregate,
load-bearing, 11.0 to 16.5 KN/m3
Concrete, reinforced:
Cinder, 17.4 KN/m3
Slag, 21.7 KN/m3
Stone
(including gravel), 23.6 KN/m3
Concrete, lightweight, 18.00 KN/m3
(normally used for building roofs as protection
of waterproofing)
Copper, 87.3 KN/m3
Cork, compressed, 2.2 KN/m3
Earth, not submerged:
Clay,
dry, 9.9 KN/m3
Clay, damp, 17.3 KN/m3
Clay and gravel, dry, 15.7 KN/m3
Silt, moist, loose, 12.3 KN/m3 Silt, moist,
packed, 15.1 KN/m3
Silt, flowing, 17.0 KN/m3
Sand and gravel, dry, loose, 15.7 KN/m3
Sand and gravel, dry, packed,
17.3 KN/m3
Sand and gravel, wet, 18.9 KN/m3
Standard mass of earth fill, 18.84 KN/m3
Ref. ASTM C789M - Specifications for Precast Box Culverts,
Storm Drains & Sewers designed for HS-20 Truck Loads
Earth, submerged:
Clay, 12.6 KN/m3
Soil,
11.0 KN/m3
River mud, 14.1 KN/m3
Sand or gravel, 9.4 KN/m3
Sand or gravel and clay, 10.2 KN/m3
Foamed concrete,
4.7 KN/m3
Gasoline, 6.7 KN/m3
Glass, 25.1 KN/m3
Gravel, dry, 16.3 KN/m3
Gypsum, loose, 11.0 KN/m3
Gypsum,
wallboard, 7.9 KN/m3
Ice, 9.0 KN/m3
Insulation board, 0.34 KN/m3
Iron, cast, 70.7 KN/m3
Iron, wrought, 75.4 KN/m3
Lead,
111.5 KN/m3
Lime:
Hydrated, loose, 5.0 KN/m3
Hydrated, compacted, 7.1 KN/m3
Manganese,
72.28 KN/m3
Masonry, Ashlar stone:
Granite, 25.9 KN/m3
Limestone, crystalline, 25.9 KN/m3
Limestone,
oolitic, 21.2 KN/m3
Marble, 27.2 KN/m3
Sandstone, 22.6 KN/m3
Masonry, Brick:
Hard (low absorption),
20.4 KN/m3
Medium (medium absorption), 18.1 KN/m3
Soft (high absorption), 15.7 KN/m3
Masonry, Concrete
( applies to solid masonry and to the solid portion of hollow masonry):
Lightweight units, 16.5 KN/m3
Medium,
19.6 KN/m3
Normal, 21.2 KN/m3
Masonry grout, 22.0 KN/m3
Masonry, Rubble stone:
Granite,
24.0 KN/m3
Limestone, crystalline, 23.1 KN/m3
Limestone, oolitic, 21.7 KN/m3
Marble, 24.5 KN/m3
Sandstone, 21.5
KN/m3
Mortar, cement or lime, 20.4 KN/m3
Particle board, 7.1 KN/m3
Plywood, 5.7 KN/m3
Paint, 1.2
kg/liter approx.
Riprap (not submerged):
Limestone, 13.0 KN/m3
Sandstone, 14.1 KN/m3
River mud, 14.1 KN/m3
Rubber,
9.11 KN/m3
Sand:
Clean and dry, 14.1 KN/m3
River sand, dry, 16.7 KN/m3
Siporex lightweight
structural concrete (LCC-Siporex), 5.40 KN/m3
Slag:
Bank, 11.0 KN/m3
Bank screenings, 17.0 KN/m3
Machine,
15.2 KN/m3
Sand, 8.2 KN/m3
Slate, 27.0 KN/m3
Snow, 5.50 KN/m3
Steel, cold-drawn, 77.3 KN/m3
Stone,
quarried, piled:
Basalt, granite, gneiss, 15.1 KN/m3
Limestone, marble, quartz, 14.9 KN/m3
Sandstone, 12.9
KN/m3
Shale, 14.5 KN/m3
Greenstone, hornblende, 16.8 KN/m3
Styrofoam, 0.16 KN/m3
Terra Cotta,
Architectural:
Voids filled, 18.9 KN/m3
Voids unfilled, 11.3 KN/m3
Tin, 72.1 KN/m3
Water, fresh,
9.8 KN/m3
Water, sea, 10.1 KN/m3
Wood:
Ash, commercial white, seasoned, 6.4 KN/m3
Cypress,
southern, seasoned, 5.3 KN/m3
Fir, Douglas, coast region, seasoned, 5.3 KN/m3
Hem fir, 4.4 KN/m3
Oak, commercial
reds and whites, seasoned, 7.4 KN/m3
Pine, southern yellow, seasoned, 5.8 KN/m3
Redwood, seasoned, 4.4 KN/m3
Spruce,
red, white and Sitka, seasoned, 4.5 KN/m3
Southern pine, short leaf, 6.13 KN/m3
Southern pine, long leaf, 7.54 KN/m3
Western
Hemlock, seasoned, 5.0 KN/m3
Wood, unless class is specified, 6.3 KN/m3
Ref. Page 1-114 of Standard
Handbook of Engineering Calculations by Tyler G. Hicks
Zinc, rolled sheet, 70.5 KN/m3
2. LIVE
LOADS
2.1 Roof
Flat or rise less than 1 vertical to 3 horizontal, 960 Pa
Rise
1:3 to less than 1:1, 768 Pa
Rise 1:1 or greater, 576 Pa
Arch or dome with rise 3/8 of span or greater, 576
Pa
Green houses, lath houses and agricultural buildings, 480 Pa
MBMA ROOF LIVE LOAD, 570 Pa
2.2
Floor
Access floor systems:
Office use, 2400 Pa
Computer use, 4790 Pa
Air-conditioning (machine
space), 9580 Pa
Amusement park structure, 4790 Pa
Apartments (see residential)
Armories and drill rooms, 7180 Pa
Assembly
areas and theaters:
Fixed seats (fastened to floor), 2870 Pa
Lobbies, 4790 Pa
Movable seats, 4790 Pa
Platforms
(assembly), 4790 Pa
Stage floors, 7180 Pa
Attic, non-residential:
Non-storage, 1200 Pa
Storage, 3830 Pa
Bakery:
Exterior,
4790 Pa
Interior (fixed seats), 2870 Pa
Interior (movable seats), 4790 Pa
Balconies (exterior), 4790 Pa
Balconies
on one- and two-family residences only, and not exceeding 9.3 m2, 2870 Pa
Boathouse, floors, 4790 Pa
Boiler room, framed,
14360 Pa
Bowling alleys, poolrooms and similar recreation areas, 3590 Pa
Broadcasting studio, 4790 Pa
Catwalks, 1200
Pa
Ceiling, accessible furred, 480 Pa
Cold storage:
No overhead system, 11970 Pa
Overhead system:
Floor,
7180 Pa
Roof, 11970 Pa
Computer equipment, 7180 Pa
Corridors:
First floor, 4790 Pa
Other floors, same
as occupancy served except as indicated
Court rooms, 2400 - 4790 Pa
Dance halls and ballrooms, 4790 Pa
Dining
rooms and restaurants, 4790 Pa
Dormitories:
Non-partitioned, 3830 Pa
Partitioned, 1920 Pa
Elevator machine
room, 7180 Pa
Elevator machine room grating (on area of 2580 mm2), 1.33 KN
Fan room, 7180 Pa
File room:
Duplicating
equipment, 7180 Pa
Card, 6000 Pa
Letter, 3830 Pa
Finish light floor plate construction (on area of 645mm2), 0.89
KN
Fire escapes, 4790 Pa
Fire escapes on single-family dwellings only, 1920 Pa
Foundries, 28730 Pa
Fuel rooms,
framed, 19150 Pa
Garages (passenger cars only)*, 2400 Pa
*Floors in garages or portions of building used for the
storage of motor vehicles shall be designed for the uniformly distributed live loads of this Table or the following concentrated
load:
1) for passenger cars accommodating not more than 9 passengers, 8.9 KN acting on an area of 12900 mm2; and
2)
mechanical parking structures without slab or deck, passenger car only, 6.7KN per wheel
Private pleasure cars, 2400
Pa
General storage and repair, 4800 Pa
Grandstands (see stadium and arena bleachers)Greenhouses, 7180 Pa
Gymnasiums,
main floors and balconies, 4790 Pa
Handrails, guardrails and grab bars 0.73 KN/m applied in any direction at the top
For
one- and two-family dwellings, 0.29 KN/m
Hangars, 7180 Pa
Hospitals:
Operating rooms and laboratories, 2870 Pa
Private
rooms, 1920 Pa
Wards, 1920 Pa
Corridors above first floor, 3830 Pa
Hotels (see Residential)
Incinerator charging
floor, 4790 Pa
Kitchens, other than domestic, 7180 Pa
Laboratories, scientific, 4790 Pa
Laundries, 7180 Pa
Libraries,
corridors, 3830 Pa
Libraries:
Reading rooms, 2870 Pa
Stack rooms (books and shelves)*, 7180 Pa
*The weights
of books and shelving shall be computed using an assumed density of 10.21 KN/m3 and converted to a uniformly distributed load;
this load shall be used if it exceeds 7.18 KN/m2
Corridors above first floor, 3830 Pa
Maintenance, 3000 Pa
Manufacturing,
ice, 14360 Pa
Manufacturing:
Light, 6000 Pa
Heavy, 11970 Pa
Marquees and canopies, 3590 Pa
Morgue,
6000 Pa
Office buildings:
Business machine equipment, 4790 Pa
Lobbies and first floor corridors, 4790 Pa
Offices,
2400 Pa
Corridors above first floor, 3830 Pa
File and computer rooms shall be designed for heavier loads based on anticipated
occupancy.
Penal institutions:
Cell blocks, 1920 Pa
Corridors, 4790 Pa
Platforms for industrial maintenance,
3000 Pa
Printing plants:
Composing rooms, 4790 Pa
Linotype rooms, 4790 Pa
Paper storage, 2.40 KPa of clear
story height>
Press rooms, 7180 Pa
Public rooms, 4790 Pa
Ramps (not for vehicle traffic), 5000 Pa
Residential:
Dwellings
(one- and two-family)
Habitable attics and sleeping areas, 1440 Pa
Uninhabitable attics without storage, 480 Pa
Uninhabitable
attics with storage, 960 Pa
All other areas except balconies, 1920 Pa
Hotels and multi-family houses
Private
rooms and corridors serving them, 1920 Pa
Public rooms and corridors serving them, 4790 Pa
Rest rooms, 2870 Pa
Reviewing
stands, grandstands and bleachers, 4790 Pa
Rinks:
Ice skating, 11970 Pa
Roller skating, 4790 Pa
Schools:
Classrooms,
1920 Pa
Corridors above first floor, 3830 Pa
First floor corridors, 4790 Pa
Scuttles, skylight ribs, and accessible
ceilings, 9.58 KN
Sidewalks, vehicular driveways, and yards, subject to trucking, 11970 Pa
Stadiums and arenas:
Bleachers,
4790 Pa
Fixed seats (fastened to floor), 2870 Pa
Stairs and exit ways, 4790 Pa
Storage, hay or grain, 14360 Pa
Storage
areas above ceilings, 960 Pa
Storage warehouses shall be designed for heavier loads if required for anticipated storage:
Light,
6000 Pa
Heavy, 11970 Pa
Stores, retail:
First floor, 4790 Pa
Upper floors, 3590 Pa
Stores, wholesale,
all floors, 6000 Pa
Substations:
Control and Protection Room, 3000 Pa
Switchgear Room, Pa
Telephone exchange,
7180 Pa
Theaters (see assembly areas):
Aisles, corridors and lobbies, 4800 Pa
Dressing rooms, 1920 Pa
Grid-iron
floor or fly gallery:
Grating, 2870 Pa
Well beams, 373 kg/m per pair
Header beams, 1490 kg/m
Pin rail, 373 kg/m
Orchestra
floors, 2880 Pa
Projection room, 4790 Pa
Balconies, 2880 Pa
Stage floors, 7200 Pa
Toilet rooms, 2870 Pa
Transformer
rooms, 9580 Pa
Trench covers (not for vehicle traffic), 5000 Pa
Vaults, in offices, 11970 Pa
Vehicle barriers for
passenger cars (single load of 26.7 KN applied horizontally in any direction to the barrier system)
Walkways and elevated
platforms (other than exit ways), 2870 Pa
Yards and terraces, pedestrians, 4790 Pa
2.3 Live Loads
for Marina Structures
Floating dock system used for residential or light commercial use, 960 Pa
Floating
dock system associated with active marina in traditional use, 1440 Pa
Floating dock system used for public assembly, boat
shows etc., 2870 Pa
Gangways up to 1.83m in width, 2400 Pa
Gangways over 1.83m in width, 4800 Pa
Fixed pier decks,
pedestrian access only, 2400 Pa
Fixed pier decks subject to vehicle traffic, 12000 Pa
3. LATERAL
LOADS
3.1 Wind Load
VELOCITY PRESSURE
q = 0.00256 V^2 (H/33)2/7
where:
q
= velocity pressure in psf
V = wind speed in mph, 81 mph (130 kph).
*Note: This wind speed satisfies 95% of the loading
conditions in the Arabian Peninsula.
In most areas, 110 kph is more than adequate.
H = mean roof height above ground
in feet or 15 feet whichever is greater.
H = eave height if roof slope is not greater than 10 degrees.
Note: Above
formula is obviously in U.S. units. The author derived an equivalent formula with result in metric unit as follows:
a.When
V is considered to be 81 mph (130 kph)
q = 0.296717315(H)^(2/7)
b.When V is 68.33 mph (110 kph)
q = 0.211172842(H)^(2/7)
where:
q
= velocity pressure in KPa
H = mean roof height in feet or minimum 15 feet
DESIGN WIND PRESSURE
p = q(GCp)
where:
p
= design wind pressure in KPa
GCp = peak combined pressure coefficient for main framing or parts, as given in 1986 MBMA
Manual.
*Note: A 33% increase in allowable stresses is permitted for stresses resulting from load combinations including
wind loads.
WIND LOAD AS PER BS CODE:
Dynamic pressure as per BS 6399-2, Sect. 2.1.2:
Qs = 0.613 x Ve^2
where:
Qs = dynamic pressure
Ve = effective wind speed as per BS 6399-2, Sect. 2.2.3
= Vs x Sb
where: Vs = site wind speed as per BS 6399-2, Sect. 2.2.2 = Vb x Sa
x Sd x Ss x Sp
Vb = basic wind speed = wind speed (hourly mean value) x Sb factor (normally 45 m/s x 1.00)
Sa
= altitude factor as per BS 6399-2, Sect. 2.2.2.2
Sd = direction factor as per BS 6399-2, Sect. 2.2.2.3
Ss = seasonal factor as per BS 6399-2, Sect. 2.2.2.4
Sp = probability factor as per BS 6399-2, Sect. 2.2.2.5
Sb = terrain and building factor
3.2 Seismic Load, AS PER UBC 1982
LOAD
COMBINATIONS
The foundations and structural members of buildings shall be designed according to the following
load combinations:
ACI 318M-89 LOAD COMBINATIONS
U = 1.4D + 1.7L
U = 0.75 ( 1.4D + 1.7L + 1.7W ) or 1.05D
+ 1.275L + 1.275W
U = 0.9D + 1.3W
U = 1.05D + 1.28L + 1.4E
U = 0.9D + 1.43E
U = 1.4D + 1.7L + 1.7H
U = 0.9D
+ 1.7H
U = 1.4D + 1.7L + 1.4F
U = 0.9D + 1.4F
U = 0.75 ( 1.4D + 1.4T + 1.7L ) or 1.05D + 1.05T + 1.275L
U = 1.4
( D + T ) or 1.4D + 1.4T
WHERE:
H = earth pressure
F = fluid pressure
T = load due to temperature, differential
settlement, creep & shrinkage
IF LIVE LOAD IS APPLIED RAPIDLY AS MAY BE THE CASE FOR PARKING STRUCTURES, LOADING
DOCKS, WAREHOUSE FLOORS, ELEVATOR SHAFTS, ETC., IMPACT EFFECTS SHOULD BE CONSIDERED. HENCE, SUBSTITUTE ( L + IMPACT ) FOR
L IN ALL EQUATIONS.
Material Specifications
4. REINFORCED CONCRETE
4.1 Concrete Compressive Strength
Minimum
cylinder compressive strength fc' requirements are:
For water basins and high-rise structures, 27.6 MPa (4000 psi)
For
elevated structures of rotary machines, 24.1 MPa (3500 psi)
For structures, foundations, paving and for all other structural
concrete works, 20.7 MPa (3000 psi)
For cable duct banks and fireproofing, 17.2 MPa (2500 psi)
For lean concrete, 7.60
MPa (1100 psi)
For fixed offshore structures, 35.0 MPa (5000 psi)
4.2 Reinforcing Steel
Deformed
Steel Bars. All reinforcing steel, except bars for column spirals shall be deformed according to ASTM A615 Grade 60 or alternative
equivalent material.
Plain Steel Bars. Plain reinforcing steel bars shall be in accordance with ASTM A615 Grade 40
or alternative equivalent material.
Welded Wire Fabric. Welded wire fabric shall be in accordance with ASTM A496 and
A497 Grade 70 or alternative equivalent material.
Anchor bolts, Plates and Steel for Inserts. Material for anchor
bolts, plates and steel shapes for insert shall be as per ASTM A36 or alternative equivalent material.
4.3 Concrete
Cover
Cast-in-place concrete:
The following minimum cover shall be provided to all reinforcements (including
ties) of cast in place concrete, in accordance with ACI 318 Chapter 7.7.1:
Concrete cast against and permanently exposed
to earth, 70 mm
Concrete exposed to earth or weather:
dia.20 to dia.55 bars, 50 mm
dia.16 bar, W31 or D31 wire
and smaller, 40 mm
Concrete not exposed to weather or in contact with ground:
Slabs, walls, joists:
dia.45 to
dia.55 bars, 40 mm
dia.35 and smaller, 20 mm
Beams, columns, 40 mm
Shells, folded plate members:
dia.20
bar and larger, 20 mm
dia.16 bar, W31 or D31 wire and smaller, 15 mm
Pre-cast concrete:
Minimum cover for reinforcement
of pre-cast concrete shall be in accordance with ACI 318 Chapter 7.7.2 as follows:
Concrete exposed to earth or weather:
Wall
panels:
dia.45 and dia.55 bars, 40 mm
dia.35 bar and smaller, 20 mm
Other members:
dia.45 and dia.55 bars,
50 mm
dia.20 to dia.35 bars, 40 mm
dia.16 bar, W31 or D31 wire and smaller, 32 mm
Concrete not exposed to weather
or in contact with ground:
Slabs, walls, joists:
dia.45 and dia.55 bars, 32 mm
dia.35 bar and smaller, 16 mm
Beams,
columns:
Primary reinforcement, db but not less than 16 mm and need not exceed 40 mm.
Ties, stirrups, spirals, 10 mm
Shells,
folded plate members:
dia.20 bar and larger, 16 mm
dia.16 bar, W31 or D31 wire and smaller, 10 mm
Fixed offshore
structures (Cast-in-place or pre-cast):
Atmospheric zone not subject to salt spray, 50 mm
Splash and atmospheric
zone subject to salt spray, 65 mm
Submerged zone, 50 mm
Cover of stirrups, 13 mm less than listed above
4.4
Protection of Reinforced Concrete
Piles, foundations, columns, beams and slabs to be constructed of reinforced
concrete shall be adequately protected against the climate and from chemical attack from the soil by using a modified Type
I cement. The modifier shall be a pozzolanic material such as pulverized fly ash or micro-silica unless otherwise specified
in the Soil Report.
All reinforced concrete surfaces in contact with earth shall be protected with two (2) coats of
bituminous paint.
Concrete slabs of wet areas shall be waterproofed. A polyethylene membrane (0.4 mm thick, overlapped)
shall be used to protect ground slabs subject to water and moisture, either from below grade, from condensation or from the
use of the space they serve. The polyethylene membrane shall be placed on 200 mm thick base course fully compacted to form
a smooth level within a tolerance of +0 to -30 mm.
4.5 Concrete Paving
Light duty
100 mm
thick with BRC Q188 wire mesh or dia.6 at 150 x 150 designed to withstand pedestrian load only.
Medium duty
150
mm thick with BRC Q188 wire mesh or dia.6 at 150 x 150.
Heavy duty
200 mm thick with double BRC Q188 wire
mesh or dia.6 at 150 x 150.
4.6 Concrete Marina Works
In addition to design dead loads and live loads
stipulated in the previous sections, all marina structures shall be l be designed considering hydrodynamic forces i.e. wave
loads etc. acting on them.
Jetty supports
Bending moment on jetty supports due to hydrodynamic forces is defined by
the following formula:
M = am x CD x w x H x D x (H x d)
where:
M = moment due to hydrodynamic forces
am
= moment coefficient based on Figs. 7-80 to 7-83 of Shore Protection Manual. am values depend on design wave height and depth
of seawater level. Use maximum value of 0.48 for conservative result.
CD = hydrodynamic force coefficient, assumed as 1.20
w
= density of saltwater, 10.06 KN/m3
H = design wave height. Assume H to be 0.50m for protected areas and 1.20m to 2.00m
for unprotected areas unless data based on actual observation and measurement is available.
D = diameter or side dimension
of column.
d = depth of seawater line
5. STRUCTURAL STEEL
5.1 Materials
Structural
steel shall comply with the following specification except otherwise specified by the client:
ASTM A36 SPECIFICATIONS
5.2
Specified minimum yield stress:
*Note: Yield stress denotes either the specified minimum yield point for those
steels that have a yield point, or specified minimum yield strength for those steels without yield point.
Built-up
members, Fy=345 MPa
Hot-rolled members, Fy=250 MPa
Cold-formed members, Fy=345 MPa
Metal deck (HESCO VP-65), Fy=227
MPa
Brace rods, Fy=250 MPa
High-strength bolts, AS PER ASTM A325
Machine bolts, AS PER ASTM A307
Anchor bolts,
Fy=250 MPa
5.3 Allowable Displacements and Deflections
Design deflection of structural steel members
shall not exceed the following values:
Purlins and girders of sloped roofs, L/200
Pipe rack beams, L/300
Floor
beams supporting equipment, L/450
Other floor beams, L/300
Crane runway beams*, L/750
Frames supporting equipment(horizontal),
H/300
Other frames, H/200
Where:
L = span of the beam
H = height of the frame
*More stringent prescriptions
by manufacturers shall be adhered to.
5.4 Bolts, Nuts and Washers
Common bolts shall conform to ASTM
A307, ISO 898 specification or alternative equivalent material.
High strength bolts shall conform to ASM A325, ISO
898 specification or alternative equivalent material, minimum dia.16mm.
Nuts for normal type and for high strength
type shall conform to ASTM A194, A563, ISO 898 or alternative equivalent material.
Washers shall conform to ASTM F436
or alternative equivalent material.
5.5 Thermal Load
Thermal Load (ThL) is the force caused by a change
in temperature. Such forces shall include those caused by vessel or piping expansion or contraction, and expansion or contraction
of structures.
The values to define the forces due to weather temperature variation with respect to the casting and/or
erection temperature, are the following:
Reinforced concrete expansion factor, a = 0.000010/C
Structural steel expansion
factor, a = 0.000011/C
Thermal variation, Delta T = +or- 30أƒئ’أ¢â‚¬إ،أƒâ€ڑأ‚آ°C
5.6
Friction coefficients
teflon on teflon, f = 0.1
teflon on stainless steel, f = 0.1
steel on steel, f = 0.3
steel
on concrete, f = 0.4
6. FOUNDATION DESIGN
6.1 Soil-bearing capacity
Soil-bearing
capacity shall be based on Geo-technical Report conducted by a competent testing Laboratory. For high-rise buildings and other
critical structures, a report is compulsory and foundation design may not be carried out without it. Based on experience with
different projects in Jeddah, soil-bearing capacities in the range of 100 to 200 KPa are common. For minor projects, 150 KPa
may be assumed if report is not available. For major ones, 100 KPa may be assumed at the preliminary design stage, to be finalized
when soil report becomes available.
6.2 Lean Concrete
Foundations shall be laid on minimum 50mm lean
concrete.
Elevation of Foundation and Grouting
All concrete foundations shall be at a minimum of
200mm above concrete paving or ground level for unpaved areas.
To allow grouting of pumps, exchangers, vessels, towers,
steel structures, etc., the bearing surface of concrete foundation blocks shall initially be 25 mm (minimum) below the final
level unless otherwise specified.
6.4 Protection of Foundations and Structures
Piles, foundations,
columns, beams and slabs to be constructed of reinforced concrete shall be adequately protected against the climate and from
chemical attack from the soil by using a modified Type I cement. The modifier shall be a pozzolanic material such as pulverized
fly ash or micro-silica unless otherwise specified in the Soil Report.
All reinforced concrete surfaces in contact
with earth shall be protected with two (2) coats of bituminous paint.
Concrete slabs of wet areas shall be waterproofed.
A polyethylene membrane (0.4 mm thick, overlapped) shall be used to protect ground slabs subject to water and moisture, either
from below grade, from condensation or from the use of the space they serve. The polyethylene membrane shall be placed on
200 mm thick base course fully compacted to form a smooth level within a tolerance of +0 to -30 mm.
6.5 Stability
of Foundations
The shallow foundations of chimneys and equipment of height exceeding 20 meters and where height
divided by width is greater than 5, must have a positive ground pressure over the entire surface in the operating condition.
6.6 Foundation Design Criteria
Deep foundations. Provide deep foundations when necessary to reduce
settlement or use anchor piles to counteract the overturning. Bored piles for deep foundation shall be continuous flight auger
piles. The ultimate axial pile compression capacity shall be computed neglecting the end bearing. Minimum pile depth for the
working axial compression loads with safety factor of 2.5 and cut off level about 1.5 below the final ground level for pile
diameter 600 mm are listed below:
Working Load/Ultimate Load - Depth
600 KN/1500 KN - 24 m
800 KN/2000 KN - 27
m
1000 KN/2500 KN - 30 m
1200 KN/3000 KN - 33 m
Dynamic properties of soil
The following values shall
be used:
Dynamic Shear modulus, G = 220 MPa
Dynamic Young's modulus, E = 585 MPa
Poisson's ratio, Y = 0.33
Shear
wave velocity, V = 400 m/s
Shallow foundation. The foundation shall be placed generally about 1500 mm below the final
ground level. To solve problems due to interference with underground network it is possible to have different embedment depth
but for equipment not anchored on concrete paving the minimum embedment depth will be 600 mm below the lowest adjacent grade.
The minimum width of the equivalent square footing shall be 1000 mm and the minimum width for strip footings will be 300 mm.
To
design shallow foundation the following checks shall be done:
Sliding resistance
Structure and foundation overturning
Net
bearing pressure
SLIDING RESISTANCE. The sliding resistance of shallow foundation shall be computed as
S = 0.3
V
where:
S = allowable horizontal resistance in KN (factor of safety = 1.5)
V = minimum vertical load on foundation
in KN.
When the net soil passive pressure is negligible the applied horizontal force shall not be more than S.
STRUCTURE
AND FOUNDATION OVERTURNING. The balancing moment due to structure and footing weight (including the soil on the footing slab)
shall be at least 1.5 times the overturning moment.
NET BEARING PRESSURE. The net bearing pressure is the difference
between the gross bearing pressure acting on the base of the foundation and the soil pressure existing at that elevation prior
to excavation. The allowable net bearing pressure shall be 200 KPa or the one that gives a settlement of 25 mm which ever
is less.
When there is an eccentric load, the maximum eccentricity shall be less than B/6 for rectangular footings
or less than r/4 for circular footings.
Foundations for Heavy Machinery
Heavy machinery is any equipment
having reciprocating or rotary masses as the major moving parts (such as reciprocating or rotary compressors, horizontal pumps,
engines and turbines) and having a gross plan area of more than 2.8 sqm or a total weight greater than 23 KN.
Dynamic
modulus of elasticity of concrete (E') in MPa for use in dynamic analysis shall be:
E = 6550 (fc)^(1/2)
where :
fc'
is the 28-day cylinder compressive strength in MPa.
Soil bearing pressure under the foundation of reciprocating and
centrifugal machines shall not exceed 1/4 and 1/2 of the allowable soil bearing capacity respectively.
Depth of all
foundations shall be at least 1 meter below the lowest adjacent final natural grade.
The effects of shrinkage and thermal
expansion shall be taken into account. In order to prevent cracking, minimum concrete reinforcing shall be 50 kg/m3 except
for foundation slab, which shall be at least 30 kg/m3. In any case minimum reinforcement diameter shall not be less than 10mm
deformed bars extending horizontally and vertically near all faces of the foundation block at 200mm distance. All reinforcement
shall be tri-axially arranged.
All parts of machine foundation shall be independent from adjacent foundations and buildings.
Concrete floor slabs adjacent to machine foundations shall be spaced a minimum of 15 mm from the foundation. The space between
the two shall be filled with a flexible joint filler and sealer.
The thickness of the foundation slab, in meter, shall
not be less than:
Thk. = 0.6 + L/30
where:
For one machinery train, L = longest dimension of the foundation
slab, in meters
For two or more machinery trains supported on a common foundation, L = greater of the width of the common
slab or the length of the longest slab segment assigned to any one train, in meters.
In any case minimum thickness
of foundation shall not be less than 1/10 of its maximum dimension.
6.8 Foundations for Reciprocating Machinery
Direct
support is required for reciprocating machinery and the foundation shall be as follows:
1. The total foundation weight
shall be at least 5 times the total weight of the machinery.
2. The horizontal eccentricity in any direction, between
the centroid of mass of the machine foundation system and the centroid of the base contact area, shall not exceed 5% of the
respective base dimension.
3. The center of gravity of the machine foundation system should be as close as possible
to the lines of action of the unbalanced forces.
4. Compressor foundations shall include integral supports for the
pulsation bottles.
5. Groups of reciprocating machinery could be tied together with a common foundation slab when allowed
by their location and service.
The dynamic design shall be as follows:
1. Barkan's theory shall be utilized
to carry out the calculations of natural frequencies and amplitudes.
2. Natural frequencies of the excited modes shall
be of the range 0.7 to 1.3 times the distributing frequencies of any machine on the foundations.
3. Primary forces,
couples and moments shall be applied at machine speed for calculation of primary amplitudes.
4. Secondary forces, couples
and moments shall be applied at twice the machine speed for calculation of secondary amplitudes.
5. Total amplitude
shall be calculated by combining in-phase, primary and secondary amplitudes as per Sections c. and d. above. No total peak-to-peak-amplitude
on the foundation shall exceed 0.05 mm.
6.9 Foundations for Rotary Machinery
Direct foundation for
rotary machinery shall be at least 3 times the weight of the machinery.
Static design for all types of foundations
shall take into account the following loads:
1. The dead weight of machines and their base plates.
2. Transversal
forces representing 25% of the weight of each machine, including its base plate, applied normal to its shaft at a point midway
between the end bearings.
3. Longitudinal forces representing 25% of the weight of each machine, including its base
plate, applied along the shaft axis.
4. The total transversal and total longitudinal forces per 2 and 3 above shall
not be considered to act concurrently.
Dynamic design shall be as per Manufacturer's Specifications.
6.10
Foundations for Light Vibration Machinery
A light vibrating machinery is any equipment having reciprocating or
rotary masses as the major moving parts (such as reciprocating for rotary compressors, horizontal pumps, etc.), and having
both a gross plan area less than 2.8 sqm, total weight less than 23 KN and operating speed greater than 1200 RPM.
For
light vibrating machinery dynamic design shall be neglected. Static design of foundation shall be performed as in the
other types of machinery. Minimum thickness of the foundation slab shall be 500 mm or 1/10 of its maximum dimension whichever
is greater.
REFERENCES
ANSI/ASCE 7-95, Minimum Design Loads for Buildings and other Structures,
ANSI/ASCE
ACI 318-1993, Building Code Requirements for Reinforced Concrete, ACI
AISC-1989, Specification for
Structural Steel Buildings, AISC
UBC-1982, Uniform Building Code, ICBO
أƒâ€ڑأ‚آ©1991,
MARINAS and Small Craft Harbors, by Bruce O. Tobiasson & Ronald C. Kollmeyer
Various Manufacturers' Data Sheets
and Suppliers' Brochures
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